Abstract:
:This review summarizes the general parameters of cell- and antibody-mediated immune protection and the basic mechanisms responsible for what we call immunological memory. From this basis, the various successes and difficulties of vaccines are evaluated with respect to the role of antigen in maintaining protective immunity. Based on the fact that in humans during the first 12-48 months maternal antibodies from milk and serum protect against classical acute childhood and other infections, the concept is developed that maternal antibodies attenuate most infections of babies and infants and turn them into effective vaccines. If this "natural vaccination" under passive protective conditions does not occur, acute childhood diseases may be severe, unless infants are actively vaccinated with conventional vaccines early enough, i.e., in synchronization with the immune system's maturation. Although vaccines are available against the classical childhood diseases, they are not available for many seemingly milder childhood infections such as gastrointestinal and respiratory infections; these may eventually trigger immunopathological diseases. These changing balances between humans and infections caused by changes in nursing habits but also in hygiene levels may well be involved in changing disease patterns including increased frequencies of certain autoimmune and degenerative diseases.
journal_name
Annu Rev Immunoljournal_title
Annual review of immunologyauthors
Zinkernagel RMdoi
10.1146/annurev.immunol.21.120601.141045subject
Has Abstractpub_date
2003-01-01 00:00:00pages
515-46eissn
0732-0582issn
1545-3278pii
120601.141045journal_volume
21pub_type
杂志文章,评审abstract::The bare lymphocyte syndrome (BLS) is a hereditary immunodeficiency resulting from the absence of major histocompatibility complex class II (MHCII) expression. Considering the central role of MHCII molecules in the development and activation of CD4(+) T cells, it is not surprising that the immune system of the patient...
journal_title:Annual review of immunology
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1146/annurev.immunol.19.1.331
更新日期:2001-01-01 00:00:00
abstract::T cell development involves stepwise progression through defined stages that give rise to multiple T cell subtypes, and this is accompanied by the establishment of stage-specific gene expression. Changes in chromatin accessibility and chromatin modifications accompany changes in gene expression during T cell developme...
journal_title:Annual review of immunology
pub_type: 杂志文章
doi:10.1146/annurev-immunol-092719-082622
更新日期:2020-04-26 00:00:00
abstract::Mast cells have existed long before the development of adaptive immunity, although they have been given different names. Thus, in the marine urochordate Styela plicata, they have been designated as test cells. However, based on their morphological characteristics (including prominent cytoplasmic granules) and mediator...
journal_title:Annual review of immunology
pub_type: 杂志文章
doi:10.1146/annurev-immunol-071719-094903
更新日期:2020-04-26 00:00:00
abstract::The immune system is composed of single cells, and its function is entirely dependent on the capacity of these cells to traffic, localize within tissues, and interact with each other in a precisely coordinated fashion. There is growing evidence that the large families of chemokines and chemokine receptors provide a fl...
journal_title:Annual review of immunology
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1146/annurev.immunol.18.1.593
更新日期:2000-01-01 00:00:00
abstract::Rejection of transplanted tissue allografts results from T-cell recognition of histocompatibility antigens expressed by cells of the donor graft. This review focuses on the phenotype, specificity, and function of the T cells mediating rejection responses against skin allografts, and on the immune mechanisms by which h...
journal_title:Annual review of immunology
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1146/annurev.iy.10.040192.002001
更新日期:1992-01-01 00:00:00
abstract::B lymphopoiesis is regulated by multiple signals from stromal cell contact, soluble cytokines, antigen, and T helper cells. In vitro and biochemical experiments have implicated tyrosine kinases as key components of many of these signaling pathways. Genetic analysis of the role of these tyrosine kinases has been facili...
journal_title:Annual review of immunology
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1146/annurev.immunol.14.1.131
更新日期:1996-01-01 00:00:00
abstract::It is possible to create mice in which a planned alteration has been introduced at a specific locus in the genome. The planned alteration is first introduced into the genome of mouse embryonic stem (ES) cells in tissue culture. This is accomplished by homologous recombination between the targeted genomic locus and DNA...
journal_title:Annual review of immunology
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1146/annurev.iy.10.040192.003421
更新日期:1992-01-01 00:00:00
abstract::The IL-10 family of cytokines consists of nine members: IL-10, IL-19, IL-20, IL-22, IL-24, IL-26, and the more distantly related IL-28A, IL-28B, and IL-29. Evolutionarily, IL-10 family cytokines emerged before the adaptive immune response. These cytokines elicit diverse host defense mechanisms, especially from epithel...
journal_title:Annual review of immunology
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1146/annurev-immunol-031210-101312
更新日期:2011-01-01 00:00:00
abstract::Analysis of cytokine mRNA and protein in rheumatoid arthritis tissue revealed that many proinflammatory cytokines such as TNF alpha, IL-1, IL-6, GM-CSF, and chemokines such as IL-8 are abundant in all patients regardless of therapy. This is compensated to some degree by the increased production of anti-inflammatory cy...
journal_title:Annual review of immunology
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1146/annurev.immunol.14.1.397
更新日期:1996-01-01 00:00:00
abstract::The past five or six years has seen a resurgence of interest in immunological memory. Areas in which important advances have been made of late or in which problems in understanding persist are covered here: (i) Selection of virgin B cells for entry into the peripheral pool. (ii) Expression of immunoglobulin isotypes a...
journal_title:Annual review of immunology
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1146/annurev.iy.11.040193.000405
更新日期:1993-01-01 00:00:00
abstract::Interleukin-21 (IL-21), a potent immunomodulatory four-alpha-helical-bundle type I cytokine, is produced by NKT and CD4(+) T cells and has pleiotropic effects on both innate and adaptive immune responses. These actions include positive effects such as enhanced proliferation of lymphoid cells, increased cytotoxicity of...
journal_title:Annual review of immunology
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1146/annurev.immunol.26.021607.090316
更新日期:2008-01-01 00:00:00
abstract::Regulation of tyrosine phosphorylation is a critical control point for integration of environmental signals into cellular responses. This regulation is mediated by the reciprocal actions of protein tyrosine kinases and phosphatases. CD45, the first and prototypic receptor-like protein tyrosine phosphatase, is expresse...
journal_title:Annual review of immunology
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1146/annurev.immunol.21.120601.140946
更新日期:2003-01-01 00:00:00
abstract::The Notch pathway is gaining increasing recognition as a key regulator of developmental choices, differentiation, and function throughout the hematolymphoid system. Notch controls the generation of hematopoietic stem cells during embryonic development and may affect their subsequent homeostasis. Commitment to the T ce...
journal_title:Annual review of immunology
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1146/annurev.immunol.23.021704.115747
更新日期:2005-01-01 00:00:00
abstract::Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II molecules are heterodimeric cell surface proteins that are critically important for the development and function of cells in the immune system. In particular, the maturation of CD4+ T cells is dependent on the expression of MHC class II molecules on thymic epithelium, wh...
journal_title:Annual review of immunology
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1146/annurev.iy.13.040195.002221
更新日期:1995-01-01 00:00:00
abstract::Stressors ranging from nutrient deprivation to immune signaling can induce the degradation of cytoplasmic material by a process known as autophagy. Increasingly, research on autophagy has begun to focus on its role in inflammation and the immune response. Autophagy acts as an immune effector that mediates pathogen cle...
journal_title:Annual review of immunology
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1146/annurev-immunol-020711-074948
更新日期:2012-01-01 00:00:00
abstract::T and B cells share a common somatic gene rearrangement mechanism for assembling the genes that code for their antigen receptors; they also have developmental pathways with many parallels. Shared usage of basic helix-loop-helix E proteins as transcriptional drivers underlies these common features. However, the transcr...
journal_title:Annual review of immunology
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1146/annurev-immunol-032712-100024
更新日期:2014-01-01 00:00:00
abstract::During the last several years, the mechanism of IFN gamma-dependent signal transduction has been the focus of intense investigation. This research has recently culminated in the elucidation of a comprehensive molecular understanding of the events that underlie IFN gamma-induced cellular responses. The structure and fu...
journal_title:Annual review of immunology
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1146/annurev.immunol.15.1.563
更新日期:1997-01-01 00:00:00
abstract::Dendritic cells (DCs) are professional antigen-presenting cells that have the ability to sense infection and tissue stress, sample and present antigen to T lymphocytes, and induce different forms of immunity and tolerance. The functional versatility of DCs depends on their remarkable ability to translate collectively ...
journal_title:Annual review of immunology
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1146/annurev.immunol.25.022106.141718
更新日期:2007-01-01 00:00:00
abstract::CD45 is one of the most abundant leukocyte cell surface glycoproteins and is expressed exclusively upon cells of the hematopoietic system. Different isoforms of CD45 are generated by alternative splicing and are expressed in cell type-specific patterns on functional subpopulations of lymphocytes. In a major advance, C...
journal_title:Annual review of immunology
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1146/annurev.iy.12.040194.000505
更新日期:1994-01-01 00:00:00
abstract::The tripartite subdivision of lymphocytes into B cells, alphabeta T cells, and gammadelta cells has been conserved seemingly since the emergence of jawed vertebrates, more than 450 million years ago. Yet, while we understand much about B cells and alphabeta T cells, we lack a compelling explanation for the evolutionar...
journal_title:Annual review of immunology
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1146/annurev.immunol.18.1.975
更新日期:2000-01-01 00:00:00
abstract::During alphabeta T cell development, cells diverge into alternate CD4 helper and CD8(+) cytotoxic T cell lineages. The precise correlation between a T cell's CD8 and CD4 choice and its TCR specificity to class I or class II MHC was noted more than 20 years ago, and establishing the underlying mechanism has remained a ...
journal_title:Annual review of immunology
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1146/annurev.immunol.25.022106.141715
更新日期:2010-01-01 00:00:00
abstract::The diverse microbial populations constituting the intestinal microbiota promote immune development and differentiation, but because of their complex metabolic requirements and the consequent difficulty culturing them, they remained, until recently, largely uncharacterized and mysterious. In the last decade, deep nucl...
journal_title:Annual review of immunology
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1146/annurev-immunol-032713-120238
更新日期:2015-01-01 00:00:00
abstract::Human immunodeficiency virus-1 (HIV-1) is usually transmitted through sexual contact and in the very early stages of infection establishes a persistent infection in lymphatic tissues (LT). Virus is produced and stored at this site in a dynamic process that slowly depletes the immune system of CD4+ T cells, setting the...
journal_title:Annual review of immunology
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1146/annurev.immunol.17.1.625
更新日期:1999-01-01 00:00:00
abstract::The innate immune system relies on its capacity to rapidly detect invading pathogenic microbes as foreign and to eliminate them. The discovery of Toll-like receptors (TLRs) provided a class of membrane receptors that sense extracellular microbes and trigger antipathogen signaling cascades. More recently, intracellular...
journal_title:Annual review of immunology
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1146/annurev.immunol.021908.132715
更新日期:2009-01-01 00:00:00
abstract::Over a decade has passed since the identification of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) as the causative agent of AIDS. During this time, HIV has been extensively characterized, and a variety of vaccine constructs and strategies have been explored. For the most part, these have been driven by successes of the past...
journal_title:Annual review of immunology
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1146/annurev.iy.12.040194.004423
更新日期:1994-01-01 00:00:00
abstract::MHC class I molecules are peptide receptors of stringent specificity which however still allow millions of different ligands. This is achieved by the following specificity characteristics summarized as allele specific peptide motifs: Peptides are of defined length, depending on the class I allele (either 8 or 9 residu...
journal_title:Annual review of immunology
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1146/annurev.iy.11.040193.001241
更新日期:1993-01-01 00:00:00
abstract::Recent structural information for complexes of cytokine receptor ectodomains bound to their ligands has significantly expanded our understanding of the macromolecular topology and ligand recognition mechanisms used by our three principal shared cytokine signaling receptors-gp130, gamma(c), and beta(c). The gp130 famil...
journal_title:Annual review of immunology
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1146/annurev.immunol.24.021605.090616
更新日期:2009-01-01 00:00:00
abstract::Although several laboratories have shown that the appearance of naturally occurring suppressor cells in the spleens of neonatal or irradiated mice is temporarily related to the ease of induction of tolerance, the characteristics of these cells and their regulatory functions have been poorly understood until recently. ...
journal_title:Annual review of immunology
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1146/annurev.iy.02.040184.001251
更新日期:1984-01-01 00:00:00
abstract::T cell activation leads to dramatic shifts in cell metabolism to protect against pathogens and to orchestrate the action of other immune cells. Quiescent T cells require predominantly ATP-generating processes, whereas proliferating effector T cells require high metabolic flux through growth-promoting pathways. Further...
journal_title:Annual review of immunology
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1146/annurev-immunol-032712-095956
更新日期:2013-01-01 00:00:00
abstract::Recent years have witnessed an emergence of interest in understanding metabolic changes associated with immune responses, termed immunometabolism. As oxygen is central to all aerobic metabolism, hypoxia is now recognized to contribute fundamentally to inflammatory and immune responses. Studies from a number of groups ...
journal_title:Annual review of immunology
pub_type: 杂志文章
doi:10.1146/annurev-immunol-100819-121537
更新日期:2020-04-26 00:00:00