Abstract:
:Cells from the chorionic girdle of the equine trophoblast invade the maternal endometrium at day 36 of gestation and become established as secretory elements known as the endometrial cups. These structures, which persist for 40-60 days, produce a gonadotropin which can be found in circulation until about day 130 of gestation. This glycoprotein has been identified in the horse and the donkey, with the former having received much better characterization. It consists of 2 noncovalently linked peptide chains; an alpha-subunit of 96 amino acids, which is common to that found in other horse glycoprotein hormones. The beta-subunit of 149 amino acids is identical to horse LH beta. Horse CG is the most heavily glycosylated of the known pituitary and placental glycoprotein hormones. The alpha-subunit has two and the beta-subunit one N-linked glycosylation site, and the beta-chain has in excess of four O-linked glycosylation sites. The N-linked glycans have some oligosaccharides that are not found on other glycoprotein hormones. The sialic component of glycosylation confers an exceptionally long half-life on CG compared to other glycoprotein hormones. Horse CG has LH-like activity in horse receptor and in vitro bioassays. In spite of the amino acid homology, it has lower LH activity than does horse LH. Its most intriguing, and as yet unexplained, characteristic is its pronounced FSH and LH activity in species other than the horse. Horse CG binds to FSH receptors of virtually all mammalian species, other than the horse, in which it has been tested and will produce biological effects peculiar to FSH. It has similar and potent interaction with LH receptors. The structural basis of this duality is not known but may be related to the region 90-110 of the beta-chain. Horse CG is believed to be constitutively expressed by the trophoblastic cells until the endometrial cups degenerate. The role of CG in equine gestation is not completely understood. It is believed to act as an LH-like hormone to induce supplementary ovulation and/or luteinization of follicles in the mare. It has not been established whether CG or the accessory corpora lutea are necessary for successful horse pregnancy. They may serve as a redundant system to assure that there is sufficient secretion of the primary corpus luteum to maintain pregnancy until the placenta assumes its role as the principal steroidogenic organ of gestation.
journal_name
Endocr Revjournal_title
Endocrine reviewsauthors
Murphy BD,Martinuk SDdoi
10.1210/edrv-12-1-27subject
Has Abstractpub_date
1991-02-01 00:00:00pages
27-44issue
1eissn
0163-769Xissn
1945-7189journal_volume
12pub_type
杂志文章,评审abstract::Spermatogenesis is the process by which a single spermatogonium develops into 256 spermatozoa, one of which will fertilize the ovum. Since the 1950s when the stages of the epithelial cycle were first described, reproductive biologists have been in pursuit of one question: How can a spermatogonium traverse the epitheli...
journal_title:Endocrine reviews
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1210/er.2003-0022
更新日期:2004-10-01 00:00:00
abstract::Investigations of biological programs that are controlled by gene transcription have mainly studied the regulation of transcription factors. However, there are examples in which the primary focus of biological regulation is at the level of a transcriptional coactivator. We have reviewed here the molecular mechanisms a...
journal_title:Endocrine reviews
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1210/er.2002-0012
更新日期:2003-02-01 00:00:00
abstract::There is a large body of literature showing that prolactin (PRL) exerts growth-promoting activities in breast cancer, and possibly in prostate cancer and prostate hyperplasia. In addition, increasing evidence argues for the involvement of locally produced (autocrine) PRL, perhaps even more than pituitary-secreted (end...
journal_title:Endocrine reviews
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1210/er.2004-0016
更新日期:2005-05-01 00:00:00
abstract::The ovary and uterus undergo extensive tissue remodeling throughout each reproductive cycle. This remodeling of the extracellular environment is dependent upon the cyclic hormonal changes associated with each estrous or menstrual cycle. In the ovary, tissue remodeling is requisite for growth and expansion of the folli...
journal_title:Endocrine reviews
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1210/er.2002-0005
更新日期:2003-08-01 00:00:00
abstract::Thyroid-associated ophthalmopathy (TAO) is a complex disease process presumed to emerge from autoimmunity occurring in the thyroid gland, most frequently in Graves disease (GD). It is disfiguring and potentially blinding, culminating in orbital tissue remodeling and disruption of function of structures adjacent to the...
journal_title:Endocrine reviews
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1210/er.2018-00066
更新日期:2019-02-01 00:00:00
abstract::In recent years, ovarian tissue cryopreservation has rapidly developed as a successful method for preserving the fertility of girls and young women with cancer or benign conditions requiring gonadotoxic therapy, and is now becoming widely recognized as an effective alternative to oocyte and embryo freezing when not fe...
journal_title:Endocrine reviews
pub_type: 杂志文章
doi:10.1210/endrev/bnaa020
更新日期:2020-12-01 00:00:00
abstract::Pregnancy dramatically affects the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis leading to increased circulating cortisol and ACTH levels during gestation, reaching values in the range seen in Cushing's syndrome (CS). The cause(s) of increased ACTH may include placental synthesis and release of biologically active CRH and ACTH...
journal_title:Endocrine reviews
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1210/er.2004-0025
更新日期:2005-10-01 00:00:00
abstract::Recent identification of new selenocysteine-containing proteins has revealed relationships between the two trace elements selenium (Se) and iodine and the hormone network. Several selenoproteins participate in the protection of thyrocytes from damage by H(2)O(2) produced for thyroid hormone biosynthesis. Iodothyronine...
journal_title:Endocrine reviews
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1210/er.2001-0034
更新日期:2005-12-01 00:00:00
abstract::Access to effective affordable contraception is critical for individual and public health. A wide range of hormonal contraceptives (HCs), which differ in composition, concentration of the progestin component, frequency of dosage, and method of administration, is currently available globally. However, the options are r...
journal_title:Endocrine reviews
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1210/er.2017-00103
更新日期:2018-02-01 00:00:00
abstract::Vitamin D deficiency is common in the elderly, especially in the housebound and in geriatric patients. The establishment of strict diagnostic criteria is hampered by differences in assay methods for 25-hydroxyvitamin D. The synthesis of vitamin D3 in the skin under influence of UV light decreases with aging due to ins...
journal_title:Endocrine reviews
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1210/edrv.22.4.0437
更新日期:2001-08-01 00:00:00
abstract::Phosphate plays essential roles in many biological processes, and the serum phosphate level is tightly controlled. Chronic hypophosphatemia causes impaired mineralization of the bone matrix and results in rickets and osteomalacia. Fibroblast growth factor 23 (FGF23) is a bone-derived hormone that regulates phosphate m...
journal_title:Endocrine reviews
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1210/er.2017-00220
更新日期:2018-06-01 00:00:00
abstract::Several components of the GH axis are involved in tumor progression, and GH-induced intracellular signaling has been strongly associated with breast cancer susceptibility in genome-wide association studies. In the general population, high IGF-I levels and low IGF-binding protein-3 levels within the normal range are as...
journal_title:Endocrine reviews
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1210/er.2018-00166
更新日期:2019-04-01 00:00:00
abstract::The vitamin D endocrine system is essential for calcium and bone homeostasis. The precise mode of action and the full spectrum of activities of the vitamin D hormone, 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D [1,25-(OH)(2)D], can now be better evaluated by critical analysis of mice with engineered deletion of the vitamin D receptor (VD...
journal_title:Endocrine reviews
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1210/er.2008-0004
更新日期:2008-10-01 00:00:00
abstract::Substantial advances have been made recently in the pathobiology of pituitary tumors. Similar to many other endocrine tumors, over the last few years we have recognized the role of germline and somatic mutations in a number of syndromic or nonsyndromic conditions with pituitary tumor predisposition. These include the ...
journal_title:Endocrine reviews
pub_type: 杂志文章
doi:10.1210/endrev/bnaa006
更新日期:2020-12-01 00:00:00
abstract::Hox genes have a well-characterized role in embryonic development, where they determine identity along the anteroposterior body axis. Hox genes are expressed not only during embryogenesis but also in the adult, where they are necessary for functional differentiation. Despite the known function of these genes as transc...
journal_title:Endocrine reviews
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1210/er.2005-0018
更新日期:2006-06-01 00:00:00
abstract::Excess body weight is associated not only with an increased risk of type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease (CVD) but also with various types of malignancies. Adiponectin, the most abundant protein secreted by adipose tissue, exhibits insulin-sensitizing, antiinflammatory, antiatherogenic, proapoptotic, and antipro...
journal_title:Endocrine reviews
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1210/er.2011-1015
更新日期:2012-08-01 00:00:00
abstract::Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) was hypothesized to result from functional ovarian hyperandrogenism (FOH) due to dysregulation of androgen secretion in 1989-1995. Subsequent studies have supported and amplified this hypothesis. When defined as otherwise unexplained hyperandrogenic oligoanovulation, two-thirds of PCOS...
journal_title:Endocrine reviews
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1210/er.2015-1104
更新日期:2016-10-01 00:00:00
abstract::TRH is a tripeptide amide that functions as a neurotransmitter but also serves as a neurohormone that has a critical role in the central regulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis. Hypophysiotropic TRH neurons involved in this neuroendocrine process are located in the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus an...
journal_title:Endocrine reviews
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1210/er.2013-1087
更新日期:2014-04-01 00:00:00
abstract::Insulin resistance is a major feature of most patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2D). A number of laboratories have observed that PC-1 (membrane [corrected] glycoprotein plasma cell antigen 1; also termed [corrected] ectonucleotide pyrophosphatase phosphodiesterase 1 or ENPP1) [corrected] is either overexpressed...
journal_title:Endocrine reviews
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1210/er.2007-0004
更新日期:2008-02-01 00:00:00
abstract::We applied decision analysis to the controversy over the management of the solitary nonfunctioning thyroid nodule. Three standard management plans were considered: immediate subtotal thyroidectomy; a six month trial of thyroid suppression with L-thyroxine, with non-suppressible lesions being removed surgically; and as...
journal_title:Endocrine reviews
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1210/edrv-5-2-185
更新日期:1984-04-01 00:00:00
abstract::Teeth are mineralized organs composed of three unique hard tissues, enamel, dentin, and cementum, and supported by the surrounding alveolar bone. Although odontogenesis differs from osteogenesis in several respects, tooth mineralization is susceptible to similar developmental failures as bone. Here we discuss conditio...
journal_title:Endocrine reviews
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1210/er.2013-1009
更新日期:2014-02-01 00:00:00
abstract::The etiology of the AITDs remains unclear but it is now generally believed that both genetic and environmental factors contribute to their development. Some recent findings have begun to directly and indirectly implicate the possibility of infectious agents in the pathogenesis of AITD, and these data serve as the basi...
journal_title:Endocrine reviews
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1210/edrv-14-1-107
更新日期:1993-02-01 00:00:00
abstract:OBJECTIVE:To summarize controlled trials examining the effect of calcium on bone density and fractures in postmenopausal women. DATA SOURCE:We searched MEDLINE and EMBASE up to 1998 and the Cochrane Controlled Register up to 2000, and we examined citations of relevant articles and proceedings of international meetings...
journal_title:Endocrine reviews
pub_type: 杂志文章,meta分析,评审
doi:10.1210/er.2001-7002
更新日期:2002-08-01 00:00:00
abstract::Estrogens are essential for normal reproductive function. In addition, they exert important, complex, and diverse nonreproductive actions on multiple tissues. Although accumulating evidence from basic science studies using animal models suggests that estradiol plays a critical neuroprotective role against multiple typ...
journal_title:Endocrine reviews
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1210/er.2004-0014
更新日期:2005-05-01 00:00:00
abstract::The most active corticosteroids are 11 beta-hydroxylated. Humans have two isozymes with 11 beta-hydroxylase activity that are respectively required for cortisol and aldosterone synthesis. CYP11B1 (11 beta-hydroxylase) is expressed at high levels and is regulated by ACTH, whereas CYP11B2 (aldosterone synthase) is norma...
journal_title:Endocrine reviews
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1210/edrv-15-4-421
更新日期:1994-08-01 00:00:00
abstract::The secretion of glucocorticoids (GCs) is a classic endocrine response to stress. Despite that, it remains controversial as to what purpose GCs serve at such times. One view, stretching back to the time of Hans Selye, posits that GCs help mediate the ongoing or pending stress response, either via basal levels of GCs p...
journal_title:Endocrine reviews
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1210/edrv.21.1.0389
更新日期:2000-02-01 00:00:00
abstract::Natriuretic peptides are a family of structurally related but genetically distinct hormones/paracrine factors that regulate blood volume, blood pressure, ventricular hypertrophy, pulmonary hypertension, fat metabolism, and long bone growth. The mammalian members are atrial natriuretic peptide, B-type natriuretic pepti...
journal_title:Endocrine reviews
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1210/er.2005-0014
更新日期:2006-02-01 00:00:00
abstract::In human beings, two forms of GnRH, termed GnRH-I and GnRH-II, encoded by separate genes have been identified. Although these hormones share comparable cDNA and genomic structures, their tissue distribution and regulation of gene expression are significantly dissimilar. The actions of GnRH are mediated by the GnRH rec...
journal_title:Endocrine reviews
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1210/er.2003-0039
更新日期:2005-04-01 00:00:00
abstract::Members of the TGF-beta superfamily, which includes TGF-betas, growth differentiation factors, bone morphogenetic proteins, activins, inhibins, and glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor, are synthesized as prepropeptide precursors and then processed and secreted as homodimers or heterodimers. Most ligands of the...
journal_title:Endocrine reviews
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1210/er.2002-0003
更新日期:2002-12-01 00:00:00
abstract::Insulin signaling plays a physiological role in traditional insulin target tissues controlling glucose homeostasis as well as in pancreatic β-cells and in the endothelium. Insulin signaling abnormalities may, therefore, be pathogenic for insulin resistance, impaired insulin secretion, endothelial dysfunction, and even...
journal_title:Endocrine reviews
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1210/er.2011-1042
更新日期:2012-08-01 00:00:00