Over-the-counter antibiotic sales in community and online pharmacies, China.

Abstract:

Objective:To determine the prevalence of and factors associated with dispensing antibiotics without a prescription in online and community pharmacies in China. Methods:We conducted a nationwide cross-sectional study of online and community pharmacies in 27 cities and counties in nine provinces in China (selected by multistage sampling) from July 2017 to December 2018. We assessed sale of antibiotics without a prescription and quality of pharmacy services through simulated clients who asked to buy specific antibiotics. We compared the prevalence of sales between online and community pharmacies, and between location and features of community pharmacies. Findings:Of 220 online and 675 community pharmacies, 174 (79.1%) and 586 (86.8%) sold antibiotics without a valid prescription, respectively. About half of the online pharmacies had a notice on their website about the illegality of selling prescription-only medicines without a prescription while none of the community pharmacists had. More online pharmacies without this notice dispensed antibiotics without a valid prescription (P < 0.001). Antibiotics' sale without a prescription was significantly less prevalent in provincial capital cities (71.6%; 161/225) than prefectural-level cities (95.1%; 214/225) and counties (93.8%; 211/225; P < 0.001). Most pharmacy staff did not ask for important information from clients before dispensing the antibiotic or provide them with necessary information about the antibiotic. Conclusion:Given the high proportion of sales of prescription-only medicines without a prescription, there is a need to strengthen enforcement of regulations, improve public education on antibiotics, train pharmacy staff and consolidate public involvement in antibiotic stewardship in retail pharmacies in China. Objectif:Déterminer la fréquence à laquelle des antibiotiques sans ordonnance sont vendus dans les pharmacies communautaires et en ligne, ainsi que les facteurs qui y sont associés. Méthodes:Nous avons mené une étude transversale à l'échelle nationale auprès de pharmacies communautaires et en ligne, dans 27 villes et comtés de neuf provinces chinoises (sélectionnées selon un échantillonnage à plusieurs degrés), entre juillet 2017 et décembre 2018. Nous avons analysé la vente d'antibiotiques sans ordonnance et évalué la qualité des services pharmaceutiques en nous faisant passer pour des clients cherchant à acheter des antibiotiques spécifiques. Enfin, nous avons comparé la fréquence de vente entre pharmacies en ligne et pharmacies communautaires, de même que la localisation et les caractéristiques des pharmacies communautaires. Résultats:Sur les 220 pharmacies en ligne et 675 pharmacies communautaires observées, 174 (79,1%) et 586 (86,8%) respectivement ont vendu des antibiotiques sans ordonnance valable. Près de la moitié des pharmacies en ligne avaient publié un avertissement sur leur site précisant que la vente sans ordonnance de médicaments soumis à prescription était illégale; en revanche, aucune pharmacie communautaire ne mentionnait cette information. Les pharmacies en ligne vendant des antibiotiques sans ordonnance valable étaient souvent celles qui n'avaient pas publié cet avertissement (P < 0,001). La vente d'antibiotiques sans ordonnance était nettement moins fréquente dans les capitales provinciales (71,6%; 161/225) que dans les villes de niveau préfectoral (95,1%; 214/225) et les comtés (93,8%; 211/225; P < 0,001). La plupart des pharmaciens ne posaient pas aux clients les questions de base avant de leur fournir l'antibiotique, ou ne leur communiquaient pas les renseignements nécessaires à son propos. Conclusion:Étant donné la forte proportion de vente sans ordonnance de médicaments soumis à prescription, il est impératif de renforcer l'application de la réglementation, de mieux sensibiliser le public sur les antibiotiques, de former les pharmaciens et de promouvoir la participation de la population aux activités de gestion des antibiotiques dans les pharmacies de détail en Chine. Objetivo:Determinar la prevalencia de la distribución de los antibióticos sin receta en las farmacias en línea y comunitarias de China, así como los factores relacionados con esa distribución. Métodos:Se realizó un estudio transversal a nivel nacional de las farmacias en línea y comunitarias en 27 ciudades y condados de 9 provincias de China (seleccionadas mediante un muestreo de etapas múltiples) entre julio de 2017 y diciembre de 2018. Se evaluó la venta de antibióticos sin receta y la calidad de los servicios de las farmacias a través de clientes falsos que solicitaban comprar antibióticos específicos. Se comparó la prevalencia de las ventas entre las farmacias en línea y las comunitarias, y entre la ubicación y las características de las farmacias comunitarias. Resultados:De 220 farmacias en línea y 675 farmacias comunitarias, 174 (79,1 %) y 586 (86,8 %) vendieron antibióticos sin recetas válidas, respectivamente. Alrededor de la mitad de las farmacias en línea tenían un aviso en su sitio web sobre la ilegalidad de la venta sin la receta de los medicamentos que solo se venden con receta, mientras que ninguna de las farmacias comunitarias lo tenía. Más farmacias en línea sin este aviso suministraban antibióticos sin recetas válidas (P < 0,001). La venta de los antibióticos sin receta fue significativamente menos frecuente en las capitales de provincia (71,6 %; 161/225) que en las ciudades con nivel prefectural (95,1 %; 214/225) y en los condados (93,8 %; 211/225; P < 0,001). La mayoría del personal de las farmacias no pedía información importante a los clientes antes de vender los antibióticos ni les proporcionaba la información necesaria sobre su uso. Conclusión:Teniendo en cuenta el alto porcentaje de ventas sin la receta de los medicamentos sujetos a receta médica, es necesario reforzar la aplicación de las regulaciones, mejorar la educación pública sobre los antibióticos, capacitar al personal de las farmacias y consolidar la participación pública en la administración de los antibióticos en las farmacias minoristas de China. :الغرض تحديد مدى انتشار صرف المضادات الحيوية دون وصفة طبية في صيدليات الإنترنت وصيدليات المجتمع في الصين، والعوامل المرتبطة بذلك. الطريقة قم بإجراء دراسة مستعرضة على مستوى الدولة للصيدليات عبر الإنترنت وصيدليات المجتمع في 27 مدينة ومقاطعة في تسعة أقاليم بالصين (تم اختيارها عن طريق أخذ عينات متعددة المراحل) من يوليو/تموز 2017 إلى ديسمبر/كانون أول 2018. وقمنا بتقييم مبيعات المضادات الحيوية دون وصفة طبية، وجودة خدمات الصيدلة من خلال عملاء محاكاة طلبوا شراء مضادات حيوية محددة. كذلك قمنا بمقارنة انتشار المبيعات بين الصيدليات عبر الإنترنت وصيدليات المجتمع، وبين موقع وميزات صيدليات المجتمع. النتائج من بين 220 صيدلية عبر الإنترنت، و675 صيدلية بالمجتمع، قامت 174 صيدلية (بنسبة 79.1٪) و586 صيدلية (بنسبة 86.8٪) على التوالي، ببيع مضادات حيوية دون وصفة طبية صالحة. قرابة نصف الصيدليات عبر الإنترنت، وضعت إشعار على موقعها الإلكترونية بخصوص عدم شرعية بيع أدوية الوصفات طبية دون وصفة طبية، بينما لم يكن تضع أي من صيدليات المجتمع مثل هذا الإشعار. قامت المزيد من الصيدليات عبر الإنترنت، لا تضع هذا الإشعار، بصرف المضادات الحيوية دون وصفة طبية صالحة (نسبة الاحتمال أقل من 0.001). كان بيع المضادات الحيوية دون وصفة طبية أقل انتشاراً بشكل ملحوظ في عواصم الأقاليم (71.6٪؛ 161/225)، عنه في المدن على مستوى المحافظات (95.1٪؛ 214/225)، والمقاطعات (93.8٪؛ 211/225؛ نسبة الاحتمال أقل من < 0.001). لم يطلب معظم فرق العمل بالصيدليات معلومات هامة من العملاء قبل صرف المضاد الحيوي، أو تزويد العملاء بالمعلومات اللازمة عن المضاد الحيوي. الاستنتاج نظراً للنسبة العالية لمبيعات أدوية الوصفة الطبية دون وصفة طبية، فإن هناك حاجة إلى دعم تطبيق اللوائح، وتحسين التوعية العامة بالمضادات الحيوية، وتدريب فرق العمل بالصيدليات، وتدعيم المشاركة العامة في الإشراف على المضادات الحيوية في صيدليات البيع بالتجزئة في الصين. 目的:旨在确定中国网上药店和社区药店在没有处方的情况下配售抗生素的状况以及与之相关的因素。. 方法:从 2017 年 7 月至 2018 年 12 月,我们以中国的网上药店和 9个省的 27 个市县的社区药店(通过多阶段抽样选择)为研究对象,在全国范围内进行了现况调查。我们通过模拟客户在没有处方的情况下要求购买特定抗生素的方法,评估了抗生素的销售情况以及药店的服务质量。我们分别对比了网上药店和社区药店、不同地区和特征的社区药店无处方销售抗生素的比例。. 结果:在 220 家网上药店和 675 家社区药店中,分别有 174 家 (79.1%) 和 586 家 (86.8%) 药店在没有有效处方的情况下销售抗生素。大约一半的网上药店在其网站上发布了关于在没有处方的情况下销售处方药是违法的通知,而社区药店都没有。没有发布此类通知的网上药店更容易在没有有效处方的情况下配售抗生素 (P<0.001)。省会城市 (71.6%; 161/225) 在没有处方的情况下销售抗生素的比例明显低于地级市 (95.1%; 214/225) 县 (93.8%; 211/225; P < 0.001) 。大多数药房工作人员在配售抗生素之前并没有要求客户提供重要信息或向他们提供有关抗生素的必要信息。. 结论:鉴于在没有处方的情况下销售处方药的比例很高,因此有必要加强法规的执行力度、改进有关抗生素的公众教育、培训药店工作人员并且进一步鼓励公众参与中国零售药店的抗生素管控。. Цель:Определить, насколько распространена и с какими факторами связана продажа антибиотиков без рецепта в местных и онлайн-аптеках Китая. Методы:Авторы провели национальное одномоментное поперечное углубленное исследование местных и онлайн-аптек в 27 городах и округах девяти провинций Китая (отобранных посредством многоступенчатой выборки) в период с июля 2017 года по декабрь 2018 года. Для оценки продаж антибиотиков без рецепта, а также качества обслуживания аптеками в целом исследователи представлялись покупателями и просили продать им определенные антибиотики. Авторы сравнили долю продаж в местных и онлайн-аптеках, а также провели сравнение по местонахождению и характеристикам местных аптек. Результаты:Из 220 онлайн-аптек и 675 местных аптек, включенных в исследование, 174 (79,1%) и 586 (86,8%) аптек соответственно продавали антибиотики без действительного рецепта. Примерно в половине онлайн-аптек на сайте имелось уведомление о том, что продажа рецептурных препаратов без рецепта противозаконна, тогда как в местных аптеках такого уведомления не было. Среди онлайн-аптек, отпускавших антибиотики без рецепта, превалировали аптеки, в которых отсутствовало уведомление (P < 0,001). Безрецептурная продажа антибиотиков значительно реже встречалась в городах-столицах провинций (71,6%; 161/225), чем в городах уровня префектур (95,1%; 214/225) и округов (93,8%; 211/225; P < 0,001). Персонал аптек по большей части не запрашивал у клиентов важную информацию перед отпуском антибиотиков и не сообщал им необходимые сведения об антибиотиках. Вывод:Учитывая высокую долю продаж рецептурных препаратов без рецепта, необходимо принять меры по обеспечению соблюдения нормативных актов, повысить осведомленность общественности относительно антибиотиков, обучать персонал аптек и вовлекать общественность в процесс надзора за отпуском антибиотиков в розничной аптечной сети Китая.

authors

Gong Y,Jiang N,Chen Z,Wang J,Zhang J,Feng J,Lu Z,Yin X

doi

10.2471/BLT.19.242370

subject

Has Abstract

pub_date

2020-07-01 00:00:00

pages

449-457

issue

7

eissn

0042-9686

issn

1564-0604

pii

BLT.19.242370

journal_volume

98

pub_type

杂志文章
  • Development of a WHO Child Care Facility Schedule (CCFS): a pilot collaborative study.

    abstract::This paper describes the research conducted by a WHO collaborative study group for the development of a questionnaire method for the assessment of quality in child-care settings. The results of an inter-rater reliability study undertaken in Greece and Nigeria suggest that the Child Care Facility Schedule (CCFS), compo...

    journal_title:Bulletin of the World Health Organization

    pub_type: 杂志文章

    doi:

    authors: Tsiantis J,Caldwell B,Dragonas T,Jegede RO,Lambidi A,Banaag C,Orley J

    更新日期:1991-01-01 00:00:00

  • Neisseria gonorrhoeae isolates from Ethiopia 2. Pair correlations between minimal inhibitory concentration values of five antibiotics and frequency of multiple antibiotic resistance.

    abstract::The minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) values of penicillin, ampicillin, tetracycline, chloramphenicol, and streptomycin for 500 gonococcal strains were studied for product-moment coefficient correlations. The strains were isolated from male patients with acute gonococcal urethritis attending the Venereal Disease ...

    journal_title:Bulletin of the World Health Organization

    pub_type: 杂志文章

    doi:

    authors: Gedebou M,Tassew A

    更新日期:1980-01-01 00:00:00

  • MITES (FAMILY TROMBICULIDAE) PARASITIZING BIRDS MIGRATING FROM AFRICA TO EUROPE.

    abstract::The mechanisms of dissemination of arthropod-borne human and animal pathogens are of considerable interest to the epidemiologist, veterinarian and biologist. Birds which are hosts to such pathogens and their arthropod vectors could transport them over long distances during their spring and autumn migratory flights.In ...

    journal_title:Bulletin of the World Health Organization

    pub_type: 杂志文章

    doi:

    authors: VARMA MG

    更新日期:1964-01-01 00:00:00

  • Research synthesis and dissemination as a bridge to knowledge management: the Cochrane Collaboration.

    abstract::In the current information age, research synthesis is a particularly useful tool for keeping track of scientific research and making sense of the large volumes of frequently conflicting data derived from primary studies. The Cochrane Collaboration is a global initiative "to help people make well-informed decisions abo...

    journal_title:Bulletin of the World Health Organization

    pub_type: 杂志文章,评审

    doi:

    authors: Volmink J,Siegfried N,Robertson K,Gülmezoglu AM

    更新日期:2004-10-01 00:00:00

  • The second international standard for serum gonadotrophin.

    abstract::In 1961 the WHO Expert Committee on Biological Standardization asked the National Institute for Medical Research, London, to collect and study material to replace the first International Standard for Serum Gonadotrophin, stocks of which were running low. This paper describes the material that was contributed, its dist...

    journal_title:Bulletin of the World Health Organization

    pub_type: 杂志文章

    doi:

    authors: Bangham DR,Woodward PM

    更新日期:1966-01-01 00:00:00

  • Validation of community health workers' assessment of neonatal illness in rural Bangladesh.

    abstract:OBJECTIVE:To estimate the validity (sensitivity, specificity, and positive and negative predictive values) of a clinical algorithm as used by community health workers (CHWs) to detect and classify neonatal illness during routine household visits in rural Bangladesh. METHODS:CHWs evaluated breastfeeding and symptoms an...

    journal_title:Bulletin of the World Health Organization

    pub_type: 杂志文章

    doi:10.2471/blt.07.050666

    authors: Darmstadt GL,Baqui AH,Choi Y,Bari S,Rahman SM,Mannan I,Ahmed AS,Saha SK,Rahman R,Chang S,Winch PJ,Black RE,Santosham M,El Arifeen S,Bangladesh Projahnmo-2 (Mirzapur) Study Group.

    更新日期:2009-01-01 00:00:00

  • Poxviruses isolated from clinically ill and asymptomatically infected monkeys and a chimpanzee.

    abstract::Poxviruses were isolated from the kidneys of an outwardly healthy chimpanzee trapped in an area of the Democratic Republic of the Congo where a case of monkeypox had recently occurred in man, from the kidneys of clinically healthy cynomolgus monkeys in a colony in the Netherlands, and from monkeys suffering from monke...

    journal_title:Bulletin of the World Health Organization

    pub_type: 杂志文章

    doi:

    authors: Marennikova SS,Seluhina EM,Mal'ceva NN,Ladnyj ID

    更新日期:1972-01-01 00:00:00

  • Challenges encountered using standard vector control measures for dengue in Boa Vista, Brazil.

    abstract:PROBLEM:In 2010, dengue virus (DENV) serotype-4 was detected during a dengue outbreak in the Amazonian city of Boa Vista. At that time Brazil was already endemic for DENV-1, DENV-2 and DENV-3. This was the first time DENV-4 was observed in the country after it was initially detected and eliminated in 1981. APPROACH:To...

    journal_title:Bulletin of the World Health Organization

    pub_type: 杂志文章

    doi:10.2471/BLT.13.119081

    authors: Maciel-de-Freitas R,Valle D

    更新日期:2014-09-01 00:00:00

  • Testing of Plasmodium vivax CS proteins in Saimiri monkeys.

    abstract::Recombinant proteins directed against the circumsporozoite (CS) protein of Plasmodium vivax were tested for safety, immunogenicity, and efficacy in Saimiri sciureus boliviensis monkeys. The monkeys were immunized 3 times with either alum or muramyl tripeptide as adjuvant, and were challenged with 10,000 sporozoites (P...

    journal_title:Bulletin of the World Health Organization

    pub_type: 杂志文章

    doi:

    authors: Collins WE

    更新日期:1990-01-01 00:00:00

  • OBSERVATIONS ON THE PROTECTIVE EFFECT OF BCG VACCINATION IN A SOUTH INDIAN RURAL POPULATION.

    abstract::Doubts have been raised on theoretical grounds concerning the effect of BCG in tropical countries, where in most places a large proportion of the population have a naturally acquired tuberculin allergy of low strength and unknown (but almost certainly non-specific) origin. Furthermore, vaccinations in the tropics may ...

    journal_title:Bulletin of the World Health Organization

    pub_type: 杂志文章

    doi:

    authors: FRIMODT-MOLLER J,THOMAS J,PARTHASARATHY R

    更新日期:1964-01-01 00:00:00

  • Persistence of thiotepa and tepa in pupae and adults of Culex pipiens fatigans Wiedemann.

    abstract::Thiotepa and its oxygen analogue tepa, used to chemosterilize males of Culex pipiens fatigans for genetic control purposes, are toxic and mutagenic. An investigation showed that adult mosquitos that had been treated as pupae showed no detectable chemosterilant in their tissue 24 hours after emergence from the pupal st...

    journal_title:Bulletin of the World Health Organization

    pub_type: 杂志文章

    doi:

    authors: Labrecque GC,Bowman MC,Patterson RS,Seawright JA

    更新日期:1972-01-01 00:00:00

  • Influenza A virus recycling revisited.

    abstract::Current textbooks link influenza pandemics to influenza A virus subtypes H2 (1889-91), H3 (1990), H1 (1918-20), H2 (1957-58) and H3 (1968), a pattern suggesting subtype recycling in humans. Since H1 reappeared in 1977, whatever its origin, some workers feel that H2 is the next pandemic candidate. This report reviews t...

    journal_title:Bulletin of the World Health Organization

    pub_type: 杂志文章,评审

    doi:

    authors: Dowdle WR

    更新日期:1999-01-01 00:00:00

  • International collaborative study on juvenile hypertension. 1. Study procedures and screening data.

    abstract::The study procedures and the results of blood pressure screening from 8 centres are reported. Data are also presented on age, sex, sexual maturity for girls, height, weight, Quetelet's index, smoking, and use of antihypertensive drugs for 92.1% of the 18 609 children born in 1964 in the 8 districts and surveyed in 197...

    journal_title:Bulletin of the World Health Organization

    pub_type: 杂志文章

    doi:

    authors: Török E,Gyárfás I,Csukás M

    更新日期:1981-01-01 00:00:00

  • Mass administration of DEC-medicated salt for filariasis control in the endemic population of Karaikal, south India: implementation and impact assessment.

    abstract::DEC (diethylcarbamazine)-medicated salt, at a concentration of 0.1 to 0.2 mg per 100 mg, was given to the entire population of Karaikal (119 978) in South India for a 4-year period from 1982. The per capita consumption of DEC in medicated salt was 13.3 grams for the entire period. The prevalence of microfilaraemia dec...

    journal_title:Bulletin of the World Health Organization

    pub_type: 杂志文章

    doi:

    authors: Reddy GS,Venkateswaralu N

    更新日期:1996-01-01 00:00:00

  • Schistosoma haematobium infection in the opossum (Didelphis marsupialis): involvement of the urogenital system.

    abstract::Investigations of experimental schistosomiasis haematobia have suffered for want of satisfactory mammals in which schistosome infections would establish host-parasite situations more or less comparable with those seen in man. As a consequence, mammals representing different major groups have been exposed to infection ...

    journal_title:Bulletin of the World Health Organization

    pub_type: 杂志文章

    doi:

    authors: Kuntz RE,Myers BJ,Cheever AW

    更新日期:1971-01-01 00:00:00

  • Providing family planning services to women in Africa.

    abstract::Access to contraceptives in Africa has not increased at the same pace as elsewhere in the world. Some African nations are investing in family planning services to reduce fertility rates, improve economic development and their population's health. Tatum Anderson reports. ...

    journal_title:Bulletin of the World Health Organization

    pub_type: 新闻

    doi:10.2471/BLT.17.020917

    authors:

    更新日期:2017-09-01 00:00:00

  • Tobacco smoking and oral clefts: a meta-analysis.

    abstract:OBJECTIVE:To examine the association between maternal smoking and non-syndromic orofacial clefts in infants. METHODS:A meta-analysis of the association between maternal smoking during pregnancy was carried out using data from 24 case-control and cohort studies. FINDINGS:Consistent, moderate and statistically signific...

    journal_title:Bulletin of the World Health Organization

    pub_type: 杂志文章,meta分析

    doi:

    authors: Little J,Cardy A,Munger RG

    更新日期:2004-03-01 00:00:00

  • EPIZOO: software for veterinary epidemiology training and problem-solving.

    abstract::Described is a computer software package, EPIZOO, which has been developed specifically for undergraduate and postgraduate education, self-training, problem-solving, and simulation studies in veterinary epidemiology. The program is based on action-oriented animal population health/disease analyses and programming. EPI...

    journal_title:Bulletin of the World Health Organization

    pub_type: 杂志文章

    doi:

    authors: Kouba V

    更新日期:1995-01-01 00:00:00

  • What can be done about the private health sector in low-income countries?

    abstract::A very large private health sector exists in low-income countries. It consists of a great variety of providers and is used by a wide cross-section of the population. There are substantial concerns about the quality of care given, especially at the more informal end of the range of providers. This is particularly true ...

    journal_title:Bulletin of the World Health Organization

    pub_type: 杂志文章

    doi:

    authors: Mills A,Brugha R,Hanson K,McPake B

    更新日期:2002-01-01 00:00:00

  • Community-directed interventions for priority health problems in Africa: results of a multicountry study.

    abstract:OBJECTIVE:To determine the extent to which the community-directed approach used in onchocerciasis control in Africa could effectively and efficiently provide integrated delivery of other health interventions. METHODS:A three-year experimental study was undertaken in 35 health districts from 2005 to 2007 in seven resea...

    journal_title:Bulletin of the World Health Organization

    pub_type: 杂志文章,多中心研究,随机对照试验

    doi:10.2471/BLT.09.069203

    authors: CDI Study Group.

    更新日期:2010-07-01 00:00:00

  • Immunogenicity of purified, inactivated chikungunya virus in monkeys.

    abstract::Chikungunya (CHIK) virus, harvested from infected BHK-21 cell cultures and highly purified by a method combining zinc acetate precipitation, Sephadex-Sepharose column chromatography, and sucrose density gradient centrifugation, was subjected to ultraviolet (UV) irradiation and treatment with formalin. Inactivation of ...

    journal_title:Bulletin of the World Health Organization

    pub_type: 杂志文章

    doi:

    authors: Nakao E,Hotta S

    更新日期:1973-05-01 00:00:00

  • Characterization by isoenzyme electrophoresis of Trypanozoon stocks from sleeping sickness endemic areas of south-east Uganda.

    abstract::An epidemic of sleeping sickness, which started in 1976 in a focus within the county of Luuka in Central Busoga, has spread to cover the three districts of Busoga and large parts of the neighbouring districts of Tororo and Mukono. Forty-three isolates of the subgenus Trypanozoon from Busoga and Tororo (27 from man, 9 ...

    journal_title:Bulletin of the World Health Organization

    pub_type: 杂志文章

    doi:

    authors: Enyaru JC,Odiit M,Gashumba JK,Carasco JF,Rwendeire AJ

    更新日期:1992-01-01 00:00:00

  • Characterization of sporozoite surface antigens by indirect immunofluorescence: detection of stage- and species-specific antimalarial antibodies.

    abstract::Indirect immunofluorescence (IF) was used to localize stage-specific antigen(s) on the surface of the sporozoite membrane. The authors examined the feasibility of using an IF assay to determine whether an antisporozoite response is developed by individuals living in endemic areas. The specificity and sensitivity of th...

    journal_title:Bulletin of the World Health Organization

    pub_type: 杂志文章

    doi:

    authors: Nardin E,Gwadz RW,Nussenzweig RS

    更新日期:1979-01-01 00:00:00

  • Microplate assay analysis of the distribution of organophosphate and carbamate resistance in Guatemalan Anopheles albimanus.

    abstract::Simple microplate assay methods for determining the frequency of insecticide resistance in single mosquitos were used to study the distribution and localization of organophosphate and carbamate resistance in field populations of Anopheles albimanus Weidemann in Guatemala, where such resistance, caused by heavy use of ...

    journal_title:Bulletin of the World Health Organization

    pub_type: 杂志文章

    doi:

    authors: Brogdon WG,Beach RF,Stewart JM,Castanaza L

    更新日期:1988-01-01 00:00:00

  • Kuwait nutritional survey: comparison of the nutritional status of Kuwaiti children aged 0-5 years with the NCHS/CDC reference population.

    abstract::A national cross-sectional survey of the heights and weights of Kuwaiti preschool-age children of 0-5 years was conducted on a stratified multistage sample of 2554 subjects from high and low socioeconomic levels. The collected data were used to compare the nutritional status of these children with their American count...

    journal_title:Bulletin of the World Health Organization

    pub_type: 杂志文章

    doi:

    authors: Bayoumi A,Moussa MA

    更新日期:1985-01-01 00:00:00

  • BCG vaccination in leprosy: final results of the trial in Karimui, Papua New Guinea, 1963-79.

    abstract::The efficacy of BCG vaccine in preventing the clinical manifestations of leprosy in a tuberculosis-free area of Papua New Guinea is reported. Between 1963 and 1966 a total of 5356 subjects, randomized to receive BCG or saline inoculations, were examined for leprosy before the vaccination and surveillance was continued...

    journal_title:Bulletin of the World Health Organization

    pub_type: 临床试验,杂志文章,随机对照试验

    doi:

    authors: Bagshawe A,Scott GC,Russell DA,Wigley SC,Merianos A,Berry G

    更新日期:1989-01-01 00:00:00

  • Visual health screening by schoolteachers in remote communities of Peru: implementation research.

    abstract:OBJECTIVE:To describe the adaptation and scaling-up of an intervention to improve the visual health of children in the Apurimac region, Peru. METHODS:In a pilot screening programme in 2009-2010, 26 schoolteachers were trained to detect and refer visual acuity problems in schoolchildren in one district in Apurimac. To ...

    journal_title:Bulletin of the World Health Organization

    pub_type: 杂志文章

    doi:10.2471/BLT.15.163634

    authors: Latorre-Arteaga S,Gil-González D,Bascarán C,Núñez RH,Morales MD,Orihuela GC

    更新日期:2016-09-01 00:00:00

  • Key to the identification of east and central African freshwater snails of medical and veterinary importance.

    abstract::This identification key has been prepared to enable field workers in eastern and centra Africa to identify the species and subspecies of snails acting as intermediate hosts of various flukes causing bilharziasis and related diseases in man and his domestic stock.The area covered by the key is eastern Africa from the S...

    journal_title:Bulletin of the World Health Organization

    pub_type: 杂志文章

    doi:

    authors: MANDAHL-BARTH G

    更新日期:1962-01-01 00:00:00

  • Toxic effects of mycotoxins in humans.

    abstract::Mycotoxicoses are diseases caused by mycotoxins, i.e. secondary metabolites of moulds. Although they occur more frequently in areas with a hot and humid climate, favourable for the growth of moulds, they can also be found in temperate zones. Exposure to mycotoxins is mostly by ingestion, but also occurs by the dermal ...

    journal_title:Bulletin of the World Health Organization

    pub_type: 杂志文章,评审

    doi:

    authors: Peraica M,Radić B,Lucić A,Pavlović M

    更新日期:1999-01-01 00:00:00

  • Physical growth of children and adolescents in China over the past 35 years.

    abstract:OBJECTIVE:To examine if economic development in China correlates with physical growth among Chinese children and adolescents. METHODS:The height, body weight and physical activity level of children and adolescents aged 18 years and under, as well as dietary data, were obtained from seven large surveys conducted in Chi...

    journal_title:Bulletin of the World Health Organization

    pub_type: 杂志文章

    doi:10.2471/BLT.13.126243

    authors: Zong XN,Li H

    更新日期:2014-08-01 00:00:00