Abstract:
:Many interactions in modern human societies are among strangers. Explaining cooperation in such interactions is challenging. The two most prominent explanations critically depend on individuals' willingness to punish defectors: In models of direct punishment, individuals punish antisocial behavior at a personal cost, whereas in models of indirect reciprocity, they punish indirectly by withholding rewards. We investigate these competing explanations in a field experiment with real-life interactions among strangers. We find clear evidence of both direct and indirect punishment. Direct punishment is not rewarded by strangers and, in line with models of indirect reciprocity, is crowded out by indirect punishment opportunities. The existence of direct and indirect punishment in daily life indicates the importance of both means for understanding the evolution of cooperation.
journal_name
Proc Natl Acad Sci U S Aauthors
Balafoutas L,Nikiforakis N,Rockenbach Bdoi
10.1073/pnas.1413170111subject
Has Abstractpub_date
2014-11-11 00:00:00pages
15924-7issue
45eissn
0027-8424issn
1091-6490pii
1413170111journal_volume
111pub_type
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