Abstract:
:There are difficult technical problems inherent in verifying compliance to the Biological Weapons and Toxin Convention (BWC) that are making it difficult to reach international agreement on a verification protocol. A compliance regime will most likely involve the formation of an Organization for the Prevention of Biological Warfare (OPBW). Based in part on the experience of UNSCOM in Iraq, this article considers the value of establishing an OPBW and the problems that would be faced by such an international organization. It also reviews the types of verification measures that might be applied by the OPBW and their limitations and benefits for deterring biological weapons programs.
journal_name
Crit Rev Microbioljournal_title
Critical reviews in microbiologyauthors
Zilinskas RAdoi
10.1080/10408419891294262subject
Has Abstractpub_date
1998-01-01 00:00:00pages
195-218issue
3eissn
1040-841Xissn
1549-7828journal_volume
24pub_type
杂志文章,评审abstract::Programmed cell death (PCD), also referred to as apoptosis, is a cellular "suicide" mechanism, based on information from its own internal metabolism, environment, developmental history, and genome. This system was described in eukaryotes continuously along evolution, through amoebae, nematodes, insects, and animals. P...
journal_title:Critical reviews in microbiology
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.3109/10408419709115136
更新日期:1997-01-01 00:00:00
abstract::The cell wall of Saccharomyces cerevisiae is an extracellular organelle crucial for preserving its cellular integrity and detecting environmental cues. The cell wall is composed of mannoproteins attached to a polysaccharide network and is continuously remodelled as cells undergo cell division, mating, gametogenesis or...
journal_title:Critical reviews in microbiology
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1080/1040841X.2020.1715340
更新日期:2020-02-01 00:00:00
abstract::The environmental health-related relevance of cyanobacteria is primarily related to their ability to produce a wide range of toxins, which are known to be hazardous to many organisms, including human beings. The occurrence of cyanobacterial blooms has been related to eutrophic surface water. In the bloom-forming proce...
journal_title:Critical reviews in microbiology
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1080/10408410600822934
更新日期:2006-01-01 00:00:00
abstract::Humans ingest large numbers of microbes daily. Food provides distinctly different physical and physiological conditions from drinking water. With high concentrations of carbohydrate, protein, and ionic strength, food is much closer to the human physiological state than drinking water, which is essentially devoid of nu...
journal_title:Critical reviews in microbiology
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1080/1040-840291046740
更新日期:2002-01-01 00:00:00
abstract::Enteroaggregative Escherichia coli heat-stable enterotoxin 1 (EAST1) is a small protein that was first detected more than a decade ago in an enteroaggregative E. coli (EAEC) strain isolated from the stools of a diarrheic child. The EAST1 gene, astA, is not solely present in EAEC, but also in other categories of diarrh...
journal_title:Critical reviews in microbiology
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1080/1040-840291046687
更新日期:2002-01-01 00:00:00
abstract::A pheromone is a chemical excreted by an organism into the environment that acts to elicit a specific response from other organisms of the same species. The importance of pheromones in the life cycle of various species of mammals, insects, and fungi is well known. In the past decade, it has become apparent that pherom...
journal_title:Critical reviews in microbiology
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.3109/10408418609108741
更新日期:1986-01-01 00:00:00
abstract::The human fungal pathogen Candida albicans switches from a budding yeast form to a polarized hyphal form in response to various external signals. This morphogenetic switching has been implicated in the development of pathogenicity. Several signaling pathways that regulate morphogenesis have been identified, including ...
journal_title:Critical reviews in microbiology
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1080/713610451
更新日期:2003-01-01 00:00:00
abstract::With the increase in antibiotic-resistant bacteria and the lack of new antibiotics being brought onto the market, alternative strategies need to be found to cope with infections resulting from drug-resistant bacteria. A possible solution may be to combine existing antibiotics with phytochemicals to enhance the efficac...
journal_title:Critical reviews in microbiology
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.3109/1040841X.2013.763219
更新日期:2014-02-01 00:00:00
abstract::The use of marine microorganisms as potential biofactories for green synthesis of metallic nanoparticles is a relatively new field of research with considerable prospects. This method is eco-friendly, time saving, and inexpensive and can be easily scaled up for large-scale synthesis. The increasing need to develop sim...
journal_title:Critical reviews in microbiology
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.3109/1040841X.2015.1137860
更新日期:2016-11-01 00:00:00
abstract::Dermatophytoses are superficial infections caused by a group of fungi, the dermatophytes, which invade keratinized tissue of skin, hair, and nails in humans and animals. The importance of normal immune function in resistance to dermatophytoses is substantiated by an increased susceptibility to chronic infection seen i...
journal_title:Critical reviews in microbiology
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.3109/10408418909104472
更新日期:1989-01-01 00:00:00
abstract::T-cells play an important role in immunity but when these cells are overexposed to specific antigens, their function may decline. This state is usually referred to as exhaustion and the T-cells show reduced proliferation and functions such as cytokine release. T-cell exhaustion has been observed in several cancers as ...
journal_title:Critical reviews in microbiology
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1080/1040841X.2016.1185603
更新日期:2017-03-01 00:00:00
abstract::The use of phages to control and reduce numbers of unwanted bacteria can be traced back to the early 1900s, when phages were explored as a tool to treat infections before the wide scale use of antibiotics. Recently, phage therapy has received renewed interest as a method to treat multiresistant bacteria. Phages are al...
journal_title:Critical reviews in microbiology
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.3109/1040841X.2015.1114466
更新日期:2016-11-01 00:00:00
abstract::The first Alicyclobacillus spp. was isolated in 1982, and was originally thought to be strictly limited to thermophilic and acidic environments. Two years later, another Alicyclobacillus sp., A. acidoterrestris, was identified as the causative agent in spoilage of commercially pasteurized apple juice. Subsequent studi...
journal_title:Critical reviews in microbiology
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1080/10408410490435089
更新日期:2004-01-01 00:00:00
abstract::Legionella spp. are the causative agent of Legionnaire's disease and an opportunistic pathogen of significant public health concern. Identification and quantification from environmental sources is crucial for identifying outbreak origins and providing sufficient information for risk assessment and disease prevention. ...
journal_title:Critical reviews in microbiology
pub_type: 杂志文章,meta分析,评审
doi:10.3109/1040841X.2014.885930
更新日期:2016-01-01 00:00:00
abstract::Gonorrhea is a major, global public health problem for which there is no vaccine. The continuing emergence of antibiotic-resistant strains raises concerns that untreatable Neisseria gonorrhoeae may become widespread in the near future. Consequently, there is an urgent need for increased efforts towards the development...
journal_title:Critical reviews in microbiology
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.3109/1040841X.2015.1105782
更新日期:2016-11-01 00:00:00
abstract::Pathogens in soil play a tremendous role in soil health and subsequent food production. Soil-borne pathogens can cause serious losses to global harvest and are considered as a difficult problem to manage worldwide. The emergence of soil disease is largely dependent on the pathogen-host-environment complex, which can b...
journal_title:Critical reviews in microbiology
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1080/1040841X.2019.1700906
更新日期:2019-01-01 00:00:00
abstract::Both coagulation and fibrinolysis are tightly connected with the innate immune system. Infection and inflammation cause profound alterations in the otherwise well-controlled balance between coagulation and fibrinolysis. Many pathogenic bacteria directly exploit the host's hemostatic system to increase their virulence....
journal_title:Critical reviews in microbiology
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.3109/1040841X.2015.1080214
更新日期:2016-11-01 00:00:00
abstract::Since the first documented outbreak of hemorrhagic colitis caused by Escherichia coli O157:H7 in 1982, numerous publications have demonstrated or proposed putative components implicated in the pathogenesis of this gastrointestinal infection. Indeed, Escherichia coli O157:H7 pathogenesis is linked to several potential ...
journal_title:Critical reviews in microbiology
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1080/713608014
更新日期:2003-01-01 00:00:00
abstract::Tuberculosis (TB) is an air-born, transmissible disease, having an estimated 9.4 million new TB cases worldwide in 2009. Eventual control of this disease by developing a safe and efficient new vaccine able to detain its spread will have an enormous impact on public health policy. Selecting potential antigens to be inc...
journal_title:Critical reviews in microbiology
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.3109/1040841X.2013.763221
更新日期:2014-05-01 00:00:00
abstract::The increasing emergence of antimicrobial multiresistant bacteria is of great concern to public health. While these bacteria are becoming an ever more prominent cause of nosocomial and community-acquired infections worldwide, the antibiotic discovery pipeline has been stalled in the last few years with very few effort...
journal_title:Critical reviews in microbiology
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.3109/1040841X.2013.866073
更新日期:2015-01-01 00:00:00
abstract::Riboflavin derivatives are essential cofactors for a myriad of flavoproteins. In bacteria, flavins importance extends beyond their role as intracellular protein cofactors, as secreted flavins are a key metabolite in a variety of physiological processes. Bacteria obtain riboflavin through the endogenous riboflavin bios...
journal_title:Critical reviews in microbiology
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1080/1040841X.2016.1192578
更新日期:2017-03-01 00:00:00
abstract::Antimicrobial resistance of disease-related microorganisms is considered a worldwide prevalent and serious issue which increases the failure of treatment outcomes and leads to high mortality. Considering that the increased resistance to systemic antimicrobial therapy often needs of the use of more toxic agents, topica...
journal_title:Critical reviews in microbiology
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1080/1040841X.2017.1313811
更新日期:2018-02-01 00:00:00
abstract::Staphylococcus aureus biofilms represent a unique micro-environment that directly contribute to the bacterial fitness within hospital settings. The accumulation of this structure on implanted medical devices has frequently caused the development of persistent and chronic S. aureus-associated infections, which represen...
journal_title:Critical reviews in microbiology
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1080/1040841X.2017.1282941
更新日期:2017-09-01 00:00:00
abstract::The female genital tract is an intricate, yet balanced ecosystem that hosts a variety of different residential microflora. The physiological changes that occur during pregnancy may disrupt this balanced ecosystem and predispose women to a potentially pathogenic microbiota. Bacteria that are associated with bacterial v...
journal_title:Critical reviews in microbiology
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.3109/1040841X.2014.954522
更新日期:2016-05-01 00:00:00
abstract::Highly significant evidence of the intellectual and cultural efforts of the human race is contained in documents. They take many forms, from papyri through paper to modern magnetic media and optical records. These items are mainly made of organic materials many of which contain polymers, which span from cellulose and ...
journal_title:Critical reviews in microbiology
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1080/10408410490884766
更新日期:2005-01-01 00:00:00
abstract::Following a brief review of the ecology of Escherichia coli in general, the role of Shiga-Toxigenic (Verocytotoxigenic) E. coli (STEC) as pathogens is addressed. While STEC belonging to the serogroup O157 have been extensively studied and shown to be involved in many cases and outbreaks of human disease, the importanc...
journal_title:Critical reviews in microbiology
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1080/10408410601172172
更新日期:2007-01-01 00:00:00
abstract::The numbers and diversity of microbes in ecosystems within and around us is unmatched, yet most of these microorganisms remain recalcitrant to in vitro cultivation. Various high-throughput molecular techniques, collectively termed multi-omics, provide insights into the genomic structure and metabolic potential as well...
journal_title:Critical reviews in microbiology
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1080/1040841X.2017.1332003
更新日期:2018-03-01 00:00:00
abstract::The bacterial cell cycle is simpler and different than that of the typical eukaryotic cell cycle. The selective pressure during evolution has been directed to achieve optimal growth of the individual free-living microbial cell instead of a variety of replication rates of the differentiated cell within an entire multic...
journal_title:Critical reviews in microbiology
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1080/20014091096756
更新日期:2001-01-01 00:00:00
abstract::The cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) are photosynthetic prokaryotes having applications in human health with numerous biological activities and as a dietary supplement. It is used as a food supplement because of its richness in nutrients and digestibility. Many cyanobacteria (Microcystis sp, Anabaena sp, Nostoc sp, Os...
journal_title:Critical reviews in microbiology
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.3109/1040841X.2014.957640
更新日期:2016-05-01 00:00:00
abstract::Resuscitation promoting factors (Rpf) are peptidoglycan-hydrolyzing enzymes that are pivotal in the resuscitation of quiescent actinobacteria including Mycobacterium tuberculosis. From the published data, it is clear that Rpf are required for the resuscitation of non-replicating bacilli and pathogenesis in murine infe...
journal_title:Critical reviews in microbiology
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1080/1040841X.2017.1283485
更新日期:2017-09-01 00:00:00