Abstract:
:HIV protease inhibitors, as components of combination antiretroviral drug regimens, have substantially reduced the morbidity and mortality associated with HIV infection. They selectively block the action of the virus-encoded protease and stop the virus from replicating. In general, these drugs have poor systemic bioavailability and must be dosed with respect to meals for optimal absorption. Protease inhibitor-containing regimens require ingestion of a large number of capsules, are costly, and produce or are susceptible to metabolic drug interactions. Simultaneous administration of two protease inhibitors takes advantage of beneficial pharmacokinetic interactions and may circumvent many of the drugs' undesirable pharmacologic properties. For example, ritonavir increases saquinavir concentrations at steady state by up to 30-fold, allowing reduction of saquinavir dose and dosing frequency. Ritonavir decreases the systemic clearance of indinavir and overcomes the deleterious effect of food on indinavir bioavailability. These benefits reflect inhibition of presystemic clearance and first-pass metabolism, as well as inhibition of systemic clearance mediated by hepatic cytochrome P450 3A4. Several dual protease inhibitor combination regimens have shown great promise in clinical trials and are now recommended as components of salvage therapy for HIV-infected patients.
journal_name
Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicoljournal_title
Annual review of pharmacology and toxicologyauthors
Flexner Cdoi
10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.40.1.649keywords:
subject
Has Abstractpub_date
2000-01-01 00:00:00pages
649-74eissn
0362-1642issn
1545-4304journal_volume
40pub_type
杂志文章,评审abstract::The beta 3 subtype of adrenaline and noradrenaline receptors has now been extensively characterized at the structural and functional levels. Ligand binding and adenylyl cyclase activation studies helped define a beta-adrenergic profile that is quite distinct from that of the beta 1- and beta 2-adrenergic receptors, bu...
journal_title:Annual review of pharmacology and toxicology
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.37.1.421
更新日期:1997-01-01 00:00:00
abstract::Research spanning (genetically engineered) animal models, healthy volunteers, and sleep-disordered patients has identified the neurotransmitters and neuromodulators dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine, histamine, hypocretin, melatonin, glutamate, acetylcholine, γ-amino-butyric acid, and adenosine as important players ...
journal_title:Annual review of pharmacology and toxicology
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1146/annurev-pharmtox-010715-103801
更新日期:2016-01-01 00:00:00
abstract::The major concepts presented in this review can be summarized as follows: 1. There is a multidirectional continuum of anesthetic states--some represented by CNS excitation and others by depression. 2. The reticular activating system is influenced by all anesthetics; some inhibit its action (stage III) and some hyperex...
journal_title:Annual review of pharmacology and toxicology
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1146/annurev.pa.16.040176.002213
更新日期:1976-01-01 00:00:00
abstract::Bisphosphonates (BPs) are pyrophosphate analogs in which the oxygen bridge has been replaced by carbon and diverse carbon side chains have generated a large family of compounds. Several are potent inhibitors of bone destruction (resorption) and are in clinical use for the treatment and prevention of osteoporosis, Page...
journal_title:Annual review of pharmacology and toxicology
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.38.1.375
更新日期:1998-01-01 00:00:00
abstract::DNA topoisomerases are double-edged swords. They are essential for many vital functions of DNA during normal cell growth. However, they are also highly vulnerable under various physiological and nonphysiological stresses because of their delicate act on breaking and rejoining DNA. These stresses (e.g. exposure to topo...
journal_title:Annual review of pharmacology and toxicology
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.41.1.53
更新日期:2001-01-01 00:00:00
abstract::Conflicting views abound on the peripheral neurotransmitter and neuromodulator roles of purine compounds. Substantial organ- and species-related variations have become apparent. There is, however, a body of compelling evidence for such roles, if not so broad and ubiquitous as those envisioned (7) for the central nervo...
journal_title:Annual review of pharmacology and toxicology
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1146/annurev.pa.23.040183.002145
更新日期:1983-01-01 00:00:00
abstract::Oligonucleotides (ONs) can interfere with biomolecules representing the entire extended central dogma. Antisense gapmer, steric block, splice-switching ONs, and short interfering RNA drugs have been successfully developed. Moreover, antagomirs (antimicroRNAs), microRNA mimics, aptamers, DNA decoys, DNAzymes, synthetic...
journal_title:Annual review of pharmacology and toxicology
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1146/annurev-pharmtox-010818-021050
更新日期:2019-01-06 00:00:00
abstract::The cost of drugs is a major and rapidly rising component of health-care expenditures. We survey recent literature on the ethics and economics of skyrocketing pharmaceutical prices and find that advances in economic research have increased the sharpness and focus of the ethically based calls to increase access by modi...
journal_title:Annual review of pharmacology and toxicology
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1146/annurev-pharmtox-010814-124649
更新日期:2015-01-01 00:00:00
abstract::Arterial tone is coordinated among vessel segments to optimize nutrient transport and organ function. Coordinated vasomotor activity is remarkable to observe and depends on stimuli, sparsely generated in tissue, eliciting electrical responses that conduct lengthwise among electrically coupled vascular cells. The condu...
journal_title:Annual review of pharmacology and toxicology
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1146/annurev-pharmtox-010617-052623
更新日期:2018-01-06 00:00:00
abstract::Either an excess or a deficiency of vitamin A and related compounds (retinoids) causes abnormal morphological development (teratogenesis). Potential retinoid sources come from dietary intake, nutritional supplements, and some therapeutic drugs. Therefore, understanding the mechanisms of retinoid teratogenesis is impor...
journal_title:Annual review of pharmacology and toxicology
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.39.1.399
更新日期:1999-01-01 00:00:00
abstract::Numerous lines of evidence demonstrate that calpains, a family of 14 Ca(2+)-activated neutral cysteine proteases, are involved in oncotic cell death in a variety of models. At this time, the biochemistry of most calpains and the specific roles of different calpains in physiology and pathology remain to be determined. ...
journal_title:Annual review of pharmacology and toxicology
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.44.101802.121804
更新日期:2004-01-01 00:00:00
abstract::Arylamines and heterocyclic arylamines (HAAs) are of particular interest because of demonstrated carcinogenicity in animals and humans and the broad exposure to many of these compounds. The activation of these, and also some arylamine drugs, involves N-hydroxylation, usually by cytochrome P450 (P450). P450 1A2 plays a...
journal_title:Annual review of pharmacology and toxicology
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.45.120403.100010
更新日期:2005-01-01 00:00:00
abstract::Apoptosis signal-regulating kinase 1 (ASK1) is a mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) kinase kinase of the c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) and p38 MAPK pathways. ASK1 is preferentially activated by various cytotoxic stressors and plays pivotal roles in a wide variety of cellular response to them. Recent analyses of A...
journal_title:Annual review of pharmacology and toxicology
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.48.113006.094606
更新日期:2008-01-01 00:00:00
abstract::Caveolae, a subset of membrane (lipid) rafts, are flask-like invaginations of the plasma membrane that contain caveolin proteins, which serve as organizing centers for cellular signal transduction. Caveolins (-1, -2, and -3) have cytoplasmic N and C termini, palmitolylation sites, and a scaffolding domain that facilit...
journal_title:Annual review of pharmacology and toxicology
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.48.121506.124841
更新日期:2008-01-01 00:00:00
abstract::Chemokines are the largest family of cytokines in human immunophysiology. These proteins are defined by four invariant cysteines and are categorized based on the sequence around the first two cysteines, which leads to two major and two minor subfamilies. Chemokines function by activating specific G protein-coupled rec...
journal_title:Annual review of pharmacology and toxicology
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.42.091901.115838
更新日期:2002-01-01 00:00:00
abstract::Retinoids regulate gene transcription by binding to the nuclear receptors, the retinoic acid (RA) receptors (RARs), and the retinoid X receptors (RXRs). RARs and RXRs are ligand-activated transcription factors for the regulation of RA-responsive genes. The actions of RARs and RXRs on gene transcription require a highl...
journal_title:Annual review of pharmacology and toxicology
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.43.100901.140301
更新日期:2003-01-01 00:00:00
abstract::The recognition that the wall tone of most arteries and veins can change in response to shear stress has several implications for our understanding of the effects of drugs on the circulation. By a primary action on the heart and vasculature, drugs can cause changes in cardiac output and blood pressure that lead to cha...
journal_title:Annual review of pharmacology and toxicology
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1146/annurev.pa.34.040194.001133
更新日期:1994-01-01 00:00:00
abstract::The theme "New Approaches for Studying Drug and Toxicant Action: Applications to Drug Discovery and Development" links 13 articles in this volume of the Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology (ARPT). The engaging prefatory articles by Arthur Cho and Robert Lefkowitz set the stage for this theme and for the revie...
journal_title:Annual review of pharmacology and toxicology
pub_type:
doi:10.1146/annurev-pharmtox-092617-121952
更新日期:2018-01-06 00:00:00
abstract::Nuclear receptors (NR) are ligand-modulated transcription factors that play diverse roles in cell differentiation, development, proliferation, and metabolism and are associated with numerous liver pathologies such as cancer, steatosis, inflammation, fibrosis, cholestasis, and xenobiotic/drug-induced liver injury. The ...
journal_title:Annual review of pharmacology and toxicology
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1146/annurev-pharmtox-010715-103209
更新日期:2016-01-01 00:00:00
abstract::Billions of US dollars are invested every year by the pharmaceutical industry in drug development, with the aim of introducing new drugs that are effective and have minimal side effects. Thirty percent of in-pipeline drugs are excluded in an early phase of preclinical and clinical screening owing to cardiovascular saf...
journal_title:Annual review of pharmacology and toxicology
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1146/annurev-pharmtox-010617-053110
更新日期:2018-01-06 00:00:00
abstract::Behavioral consequences of low-level lead (Pb) exposure include impairments in learning processes and in Fixed-Interval schedule-controlled operant behavior. Although the neurobiological bases of these effects remain undetermined, current evidence suggests that inhibitory effects of Pb on the NMDA receptor complex may...
journal_title:Annual review of pharmacology and toxicology
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1146/annurev.pa.35.040195.002135
更新日期:1995-01-01 00:00:00
abstract::Recent studies of membrane transporters have revealed their importance in determining the pharmacokinetics of transporter substrates. When drug-drug interactions (DDIs) or genetic polymorphisms (i.e., pharmacogenetics) affect the activities of transporters, the pharmacokinetics of transporter substrate drugs is altere...
journal_title:Annual review of pharmacology and toxicology
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1146/annurev-pharmtox-011112-140309
更新日期:2013-01-01 00:00:00
abstract::Electron cryo-microscopy (cryo-EM) has revolutionized structure determination of membrane proteins and holds great potential for structure-based drug discovery. Here we discuss the potential of cryo-EM in the rational design of therapeutics for membrane proteins compared to X-ray crystallography. We also detail recent...
journal_title:Annual review of pharmacology and toxicology
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1146/annurev-pharmtox-010919-023545
更新日期:2020-01-06 00:00:00
abstract::Exposure of the developing conceptus to selected environmental agents can lead to deleterious and often times lethal birth defects. These malformations result in serious emotional and financial consequences to families and societies worldwide. As we continue to progress technologically, we face challenges from the int...
journal_title:Annual review of pharmacology and toxicology
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.42.083001.110955
更新日期:2002-01-01 00:00:00
abstract::Recent advances in cell signaling research suggest that multiple sets of signal transducing molecules are preorganized and sequestered in distinct compartments within the cell. These compartments are assembled and maintained by specific cellular machinery. The molecular ecology within a compartment creates an environm...
journal_title:Annual review of pharmacology and toxicology
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.45.120403.095807
更新日期:2005-01-01 00:00:00
abstract::Recent discoveries of novel and potentially important biological activity have spurred interest in the chemistry and biochemistry of nitroxyl (HNO). It has become clear that, among all the nitrogen oxides, HNO is unique in its chemistry and biology. Currently, the intimate chemical details of the biological actions of...
journal_title:Annual review of pharmacology and toxicology
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.45.120403.095959
更新日期:2005-01-01 00:00:00
abstract::Cyclic ADP-ribose (cADPR) and nicotinic acid adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NAADP) are two Ca(2+) messengers derived from NAD and NADP, respectively. Although NAADP is a linear molecule, structurally distinct from the cyclic cADPR, it is synthesized by similar enzymes, ADP-ribosyl cyclase and its homolog, CD38. The c...
journal_title:Annual review of pharmacology and toxicology
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.41.1.317
更新日期:2001-01-01 00:00:00
abstract::Mutant ras oncogenes and alterations in the mitogenic signaling pathways that they regulate are associated with a wide variety of solid tumors and leukemias for which existing chemotherapeutics have limited utility. Of the possible approaches to inhibit Ras function, much attention has focused on a posttranslational m...
journal_title:Annual review of pharmacology and toxicology
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.37.1.143
更新日期:1997-01-01 00:00:00
abstract::The application of rapid methods currently used for screening discovery drug candidates for metabolism and pharmacokinetic characteristics is discussed. General considerations are given for screening in this context, including the criteria for good screens, the use of counterscreens, the proper sequencing of screens, ...
journal_title:Annual review of pharmacology and toxicology
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.40.1.133
更新日期:2000-01-01 00:00:00
abstract::Neuroglial cells of the central nervous system include the astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, and microglia. Their counterparts in the peripheral nervous system are the Schwann cells. The term neuroglia comes from an erroneous concept originally coined by Virchow (1850), in which he envisioned the neurons to be embedded in...
journal_title:Annual review of pharmacology and toxicology
pub_type: 杂志文章,评审
doi:10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.39.1.151
更新日期:1999-01-01 00:00:00